Kurikan geologia

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Glossary

Source: Tieteen termipankki (Fetched on 14.4.2024)

AllABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWY
A
Aapa fen
In Central and Northern Finland, the prevailing open peatland complex, which mainly receives its water from the surrounding mineral soils.
Ablation
Ablation refers to the process of the removal or erosion of material from the surface of a glacier or ice sheet due to melting, sublimation, or calving.
Ablation moraine
Ablation moraine is a type of moraine formed at the margin of a glacier or ice sheet as a result of the deposition of material that has been eroded or ablated from the glacier surface.
Ablation till
Moraine that has loosely accumulated on the Earth’s surface from inside and on top of the ice during the glacier’s melting phase.
Absolute age
Absolute age refers to the exact age of a rock, fossil, or other geological feature.
Accessory mineral
A mineral that occurs in rock in such small amounts that it does not affect the naming of the rock type
Acid drainage
Acidic water containing free sulfuric acid and dissolved contaminants such as metals (e.g., Al, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn), metalloids (As, Sb), and salts (sulfates).
Acid generation potential
The ability of rock material to generate acid as minerals weather.
Acid mine drainage
Mine drainage water, which is acidic and contains free sulfuric acid and dissolved pollutants such as metals (e.g., Al, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn), metalloids (As, Sb), and salts (sulfates)
Acid producing, AP
The ability of rock material to produce acid as minerals weather
Active ice
Ice that is currently in motion or undergoing significant movement within a glacier, ice sheet, ice cap, or other ice-dominated landforms
Algoma-type banded iron formation
Striped iron formation that has occurred near hydrothermal environments
Alkaline rock
Group of igneous rocks in which the amount of alkali metals (e.g., K and Na) is high relative to the amount of aluminum and/or silicon
Alkalinity
The magnitude of the acid-neutralizing effect of water-dissolved, primarily bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions
Allochthon / Allochthonous
Tectonic unit that has formed elsewhere and moved to its current location through tectonic movements, and direct correlation to the source area is not possible
Allogenic mineral
Mineral that has formed elsewhere than the place where it is found
Alunite clay
Fine-grained material containing aluminum potassium sulfate, deposited at the bottom of water bodies
Amphibole
Amphibole is a mineral group composed of silicate minerals containing varying amounts of iron, magnesium, calcium, and other elements. Common types of amphibole minerals include hornblende, actinolite, and tremolite.
Amphibolite
Metamorphic and foliated rock type whose main minerals are hornblende and plagioclase
Analysator
The part located at the top of the polarization microscope that polarizes the light passing through the sample
Anatexis
Partial melting of rock types during metamorphism
Ancient channel
A channel eroded by glacial meltwaters and associated with changes in sea and lake stages after the ice age
Ancient shoreline
Ancient shoreline marker indicating the highest level of the water surface.
Anthropocene
Informal term for the period in Earth’s history when human activities (anthropogenic activities) significantly affect the Earth’s biological, chemical, and physical processes
Anticlinal groundwater zone
Groundwater discharge area
Aperture
The distance between the two walls of an open fracture
Archean eon
Geochronological unit of geological time that existed from about 4000 to 2500 million years ago, preceding the Proterozoic Eon
Artesian
Characteristic of a confined/pressurized aquifer that causes the water level to rise above the ground surface when a hole is drilled through the confining layer
Artesian well
A well that reaches the confined water, from which groundwater flows above the ground surface
Artificial recharge
Artificial infiltration of water into the soil
Assimilation
The mixing of country rock and its partial melt into the magma that has intruded against the country rock in the earth’s crust
Asthenosphere
The mantle zone beneath the Earth’s lithosphere, extending to about 700 kilometers in depth from the surface
Augen gneiss
Gneiss in which particularly potassium feldspar and quartz form oval grains or clusters of grains
Aureole
The halo around an intrusion or mineralization where the composition or structure of the rock has been altered due to heat or circulating solutions
Autigenic mineral
Mineral that has formed in the sediment at the site of deposition, either during or after the sedimentation process
Autochtonous
Part or area of the bedrock that has not moved relative to its base or surroundings due to tectonic activities
B
Baltic ice lake
The Baltic Sea’s late glacial fresh-water lake phase, which ended 11,590 years ago.
Bar / Shoal
Sandbar formed below the water surface or in shallow water.
Beach deposit
Sorted deposit formed from material moved and deposited by shore forces, which has no specific shape
Beach ridge
A ridge parallel to the shoreline, formed from material eroded, sorted, and redeposited by wave action
Becke line
Optical phenomenon occurring at the interface between two minerals, where the mineral grain can be thought of as acting as a kind of lens
Bed
The smallest unit of lithostratigraphic classification.
Bedrock
The uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust composed of various rock types, partially covered by loose soil or water, is called the regolith
Bedrock groundwater
Water in the saturated portions of the bedrock.
Bedrock mapping
Geological mapping aimed at enhancing knowledge of the characteristics and evolution of the bedrock.
Bentonite
Clay containing over 60% clay particles
Bimodal
A series or distribution with two peaks in occurrence frequency
Biogenic mound
A mound on the seabed of biogenic origin
Breccia
Clastic sedimentary rock with angular clasts and a clast size greater than 2 mm
Budini
Structure formed as a result of the interruption (boudinage) of an originally continuous layer or rock unit
C
Cambrian
The oldest period of the Phanerozoic Eon and the Paleozoic Era, approximately 539-485 million years ago.
Capillarity
The upward movement of water in the pores of fine-grained soils.
Capillary water
The water in the unsaturated zone of the soil, influenced by capillary forces.
Carbonic acid
The volatile acid formed by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water
Carboniferous period
The fifth period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 359-300 million years ago
Cataclastic
1) An adjective referring to rock formed as a result of movements and fractures in the bedrock.
2) The term for the structure of rock formed as a result of movements and fractures in the bedrock.
Cenozoic era
Phanerozoic eon’s era that began approximately 66 million years ago and continues to the present day.
Central moraine
The moraine that has accumulated at the junction of glacier tongues during the glacier’s melting phase.
Chemical sediment
Sediment deposited in place from sea or lake water.
Chemostratigraphy
Stratigraphy subset where sediment arrangement and separation rely on variations in chemical composition.
Chronostratigraphy
The part of stratigraphy where geological formations are arranged and distinguished from each other in time is called “chronostratigraphy.”
Clast
A structure characteristic of clastic sediments deposited by flowing water or wind, where part of the wavy structure has been cut away.
Clastic
1) Klasteista koostuva sedimentti tai sedimenttikivi
2) Klasteista koostuva rakenne
Coal
A sedimentary rock composed mainly of carbonaceous material formed through carbonization
Color index
A numerical value describing the color of water.
Concordance
1) Parallelism of bedding plane or tectonic surface with adjacent bed set or surface.
2) Parallelism of magmatic intrusion and its contact surface with the layering or foliation of the country rock.
Cone of depression
Conical depression surface of groundwater
Confined aquifer
Pressurized groundwater under a water-retaining layer.
Confining bed
An insulating layer of soil that bounds one or more groundwater layers.
Conglomerate
A clastic sedimentary rock with rounded clasts and a clast size larger than 2 mm.
Consolidation
Soil compaction and consolidation under load.
Contact
The contact surface between two rock types is called “contact boundary” or “contact interface” in English.
Continental plate
A lithospheric plate whose crustal portion is primarily continental.
Convection Current
The slow circulation of mostly solid rock material in the Earth’s mantle
Core
The innermost layer of the Earth
Craton
A vast area of continental crust where significant tectonic movements have not occurred for a long time
Cretaceous Period
The youngest period of the Mesozoic era, approximately 145-66 million years ago.
Crust
The outermost layer of the Earth, with an average thickness of 6-7 km for oceanic crust and 35-40 km for continental crust.
Cryptozoic Eon
The Cryptozoic eon is an outdated term for a geological period that corresponds approximately to what is now referred to as the Precambrian era (informally)
Crystal
Activity related to hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, especially the alteration and replacement of minerals as well as the crystallization in the free spaces of the bedrock
D
De Geer moraine
A terminal moraine ridge formed at the edge of a glacier terminating in water, resulting from the repeated advance or fracturing of the ice
Deformation
Physical changes in rock due to the influence of an external stress field
Deglaciation
Glacier retreat; melting of ice and withdrawal of the glacier’s edge
Degree of hydratation
The portion of cement clinker that has completely reacted with water
Delta
Sedimentary deposit formed at the mouth of a river or glacial river into a lake or sea
Detrital
Remnant or remaining
Devonian
The fourth period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 419-359 million years ago
Diagenesis
The hardening of sediment into sedimentary rock, during which the sediment is compacted (reducing pore space) and the components of the rock become cemented together
Diamict
Mixed-grain-size sediment (the term does not specify the origin of the sediment)
Diatactical clay
Freshwater varved clay; each varve can be distinguished into a light sandy and dark clayey part
Differential stress
Stress state in which different components have different magnitudes
Discharge / Flow rate
Water flow rate measured in units of time (m³/day or L/min)
Discontinuity surface
1) Sedimentology: A point in a sedimentary sequence caused by erosion or cessation of sedimentation.
2) Structural geology: A structure (joint, fault, or vein) that causes a planar mechanical disturbance in its host rock.
Drawdown
The lowering of the groundwater level from its original surface level.
Drawdown curve
Curve of the declining groundwater level in a pumping well as a function of time, distance, and pumping amount
Drumlin
A streamlined ridge formed from basal till by the movement of continental ice, which rises prominently above its surroundings
Dry crust layer
An overlying, load-bearing surface layer of fine-grained soil caused by the drying shrinkage of mineral particles above the groundwater level
Dryas period
A colder period associated with the final stage of the Weichselian glaciation approximately 12,250 – 11,600 years ago
E
Economic geology
Branch of geology that focuses on the exploration and study of raw materials of economic or industrial interest.
Ediacaran period
The youngest period of the Proterozoic eon and the Neoproterozoic era, approximately 635-539 million years ago
Eocene
The second epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 56.0-33.9 million years ago
Eon
Long geological period (hundreds or thousands of millions of years long)
Epiclastic
Sedimentary material formed as a result of weathering and erosion
Epigene
A geological process or feature occurring near or on the Earth’s surface.
Epigenetic
Feature that has formed later than the host material
Epithermal
1) Mineral occurrence formed by low-temperature hydrothermal activity near the Earth’s surface
2) Near-surface low-temperature hydrothermal environment
Epoch
An epoch is a division of the geologic time scale that is smaller than a period and larger than an age.
Era
A geological period shorter than an eon.
Erosion
Surface erosion caused by running water, glaciers, wave action, or wind.
Erratic boulder / Erratic block
Glacial erratic or boulder transported by glacier ice
Eustasy
Eustasy is the scientific term for changes in sea level across the whole planet due to global factors such as melting ice caps or thermal expansion of seawater.
Eustatic
Resulting from the rise or fall of ocean levels.
Evaporite
Sediment or sedimentary rock formed through precipitation from salt or aqueous solution.
Exhalite
Related to gas, vapor, or hydrothermal solutions.
Exogene process
Exogenic processes are geological phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface and are driven by external forces, such as weathering, erosion, and sedimentation.
Exposure
The point on the Earth’s surface where rock is exposed and clearly identifiable as solid bedrock is a rock outcrop.
Extension
Measurement of how much a line or object has elongated due to deformation
Extramarginal
Deposition or other feature formed outside the margin of a glacier (e.g., a channel)
F
Fallout
Material deposited from the air onto the Earth’s surface or into water.
Flandrian
Flandrian is a stage of the Holocene epoch, generally corresponding to the last 11,700 years following the end of the last major ice age.
Fluvial sediment
Sediment transported and deposited by flowing water.
Formation zone
An area outside the main groundwater deposit but connected to it, serving as a formation zone for groundwater or as an area that collects/releases surface water to/from a groundwater basin
Fossil water
Water trapped in the pores of sedimentary rock or sediment, which originally became trapped as the sediment was deposited
Free groundwater
Groundwater that is not confined by an overlying impermeable layer, also known as a confining layer.
G
Geodiversity
1) Geological diversity
2) Variability of the Earth’s crust, soil, surface forms, and associated processes, which influence nature and landscape over a wider area.
Geosphere
The entirety on Earth extending from the soil to the boundary of the Earth’s core, excluding the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere
Geotope
1) A geological feature of interest in geoscience.
2) A distinct part of the Earth’s crust with special geological and morphological significance.
Giant’s cauldron / Pothole
1) A giants’ kettle is a rounded, bowl-shaped cavity carved into bedrock by waterborne sediment transported by the flow of water at the bottom of a glacier.
2) In river rapids, a pothole is formed in bedrock by the erosive action of water.
Glacial sediment
Glacial till or sediment deposited by a glacier or its meltwater
Gloe
The phase of a bay becoming separated from the sea, during which the bay’s connection to the ocean is poor or sometimes completely severed.
Gneiss
A structure-oriented, medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rockand pressure conditions. It is characterized by its banded appearance, with alternating layers of different mineral compositions and colors.
Granite
Granite is a common intrusive igneous rock composed mainly of alkali feldspar, albite plagioclase, quartz, mica, and sometimes hornblende
Gravitation water
Gravity-driven flow of water in an unsaturated zone
Groundwater
Water that completely fills the pore spaces in soil and bedrock.
Groundwater divide
The boundary between the formation areas of two groundwater reservoirs.
Groundwater occurrence
An aquifer, a subsurface layer of rock or sediment containing water, with defined boundaries and areas where groundwater is formed and discharged.
Groundwater recharge area
An area within a groundwater zone where soil layers are highly permeable, allowing significant infiltration of water to become groundwater.
Groundwater table
The level where atmospheric pressure is one.
H
Hadean eon
The oldest geological age, currently unofficial, geochronological unit approximately 4600-4000 million years ago.
Holocene
The youngest geological epoch, which began approximately 11,700 years ago and continues to the present
Hummocky Moraine
The landform composed of surface or ground moraine, consisting of various ridges
Humus
Organic matter in soil
Hydratation
The chemical reaction occurring when cement is mixed with water, resulting in hydration reaction products and the mixture hardens as it dries
Hydratation product
The substance formed during cement hydration
Hydraulic conductivity
The ability of a soil or rock formation to conduct water
Hydraulic gradient
The slope angle of the groundwater table between two points
Hydrogeological mapping
Hydrogeological maps bring basic geological information together with data on the hydraulic and hydrochemical characteristics of the rocks and their usefulness for groundwater supply
Hydrogeology
The science that studies the interactions between groundwater and its geological environment, focusing on the influence of geological factors on the physical behavior and chemical composition of groundwater
Hydrologic cycle
The water (or other fluid) cycle on Earth or another celestial body
Hydrothermal
A product resulting from hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, or the solution itself
Hydrothermal activity
Activity related to hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, especially the alteration and replacement of minerals as well as the crystallization in the free spaces of the bedrock
Hydrothermal alteration
Alteration of rock-forming minerals (/glass) by the action of a circulating hydrothermal solution in the rock
Hydrothermal mineral deposit
A mineral deposit formed by the action of hydrothermal solutions
Hydrothermal ore deposit
An ore deposit formed by the action of hydrothermal solutions
Hydrothermal water
Subterranean hot water
Hypogene
1) Mineral deposit formed by upward-moving fluids in the Earth’s crust
2) Geological process or feature occurring in or beneath the Earth’s crust
I
Ice age
Geological period when ice masses covered extensive areas of the Earth
Impactite
Meteorite impact-generated rock
Indicator mineral
A mineral indicating a potential mineral deposit
Indicator species
A plant, fungus, or lichen species that can be used as an aid in mapping its substrate (rock or soil) or as an indicator of environmental change
Infiltration
Water infiltration from the Earth’s surface into a porous medium
Infiltration coefficient
The ratio of infiltrated water to precipitation
Interglacial
Interglacial period between two glaciations
Internal load
Nutrient load of a body of water, which originates from the water body itself.
Interstadial
Nutrient load of a body of water, which originates from the water body itself.
Isobase
Contour line of isostatic uplift or subsidence
Isotope age
The age of a mineral or rock calculated based on the ratio of radioactive parent isotopes to their daughter isotopes
J
Jurassic
Middle Mesozoic Era between the Triassic and Cretaceous periods approximately 201-145 million years ago
K
Kame
A landform formed by the deposition of sorted sediment during the Ice Age.
Karstification
The dissolution of minerals in bedrock caused by the movement of natural waters within the bedrock.
Karstwindow
A typically funnel-shaped depression, often formed by the collapse of a karst cave; a location where an aboveground stream/river flows underground.
Kettle hole
A kettle hole is a bowl-shaped depression that forms when a large block of ice, detached from the edge of a glacier and buried in sediment, melts into the ground, leaving a depression.
Kimberlite pipe
An ultra-basic igneous rock with a typically pipe-shaped intrusion
Kinematics
Description of how rock masses or objects within rock move as a result of deformation
L
Lamination
Layering where the thickness of the layers is typically less than 1 cm.
Lamination
Layering where the thickness of the layers is typically less than 1 cm.
Land uplift
The formation of a lake from the sea as a result of land uplift
Landslide
A landform created by the sudden mass movement of soil or rock
Limestone
Limestone primarily composed of calcite.
Limnetic
Formed at the bottom of fresh water, pertaining to lakes, concerning lakes, lacustrine.
Limonite / Bog ore
Iron oxide deposit at the bottom of a lake or bog, also along the edges of rivers and springs.
Lithology
Description of a rock based on physical characteristics such as composition, grain size, structures, and color.
Lithosphere
The Earth’s outer shell, consisting of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle, with a thickness of about 50–300 km.
Littoral zone
A zone of soil or bedrock partially saturated with water.
Loamy clay
The sediment deposited by the meltwater of a glacier into deep freshwater or low-salinity water
Lysimeter
A container embedded flush with the ground surface and filled with soil matching the surrounding land, used for measuring the water balance of the soil surface layer.
M
Major material cycle
The cycling of chemical substances on Earth or any other celestial body
Mantle
The layer between Earth’s crust and core is called the mantle.
Marine regression
1) The shoreline moving seaward
2) Relative or absolute decline in water level
Marine sediment
Sediment deposited on the ocean floor.
Marine transgression
1. The shoreline moving inland
2. Vedenpinnan suhteellinen tai absoluuttinen nousu – Relative or absolute rise in water level
Meander
A bend, series of bends, or meander occurring in a river flowing through a gently sloping area.
Meander bar
A sedimentary deposit formed in the inner bend of a meandering river.
Meghalayan
The youngest period of the Holocene, which began 4,200 years ago and continues to the present.
Mesoproterozoic era
The second period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 1600–1000 million years ago.
Mesosphere
The mantle zone located beneath the asthenosphere.
Mesozoic era
The second period of the Phanerozoic eon, approximately 252-66 million years ago.
Meteoric water
Water occurring in or originating from the atmosphere
Mud
A sediment composed of plant and animal remains as well as fine mineral particles deposited in water, with a humus content, or the proportion of organic material, exceeding 6%.
Mudstone
Organic sediment formed in water with an organic matter content exceeding 6%.
N
Neogene period
The second period of the Cenozoic era, approximately 23-2.6 million years ago.
Neoproterozoic era
The third, or youngest, period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 1000–541 million years ago.
Northgrippian
A period of the Holocene epoch that began 8,200 years ago and ended 4,200 years ago.
O
Oligotrophic
Nutrient-poor, for example, a nutrient-poor water body.
Ologocene
The third and final epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 33.9 to 23 million years ago.
Outcrop of bedrock
A rock covered by a soil layer less than a meter thick, usually moraine, is described as a geological formation in soil maps
Oxbow / Cutoff
Oxbow lake formed from the abandoned meander of a meandering river
Oxygen concentration
The mass of oxygen in water expressed per unit volume of water.
P
Palaeogene
The oldest period of the Cenozoic era, approximately 66-23 million years ago.
Palaeozoic era
The first period of the Phanerozoic eon, approximately 541-252 million years ago.
Paleocene
The first epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 66.0 to 56.0 million years ago.
Paleoproterozoic era
The oldest period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 2500–1600 million years ago.
Peneplain
A land surface that has been lowered and leveled near the base level of erosion (usually sea level) as a result of long-term erosion.
Perched groundwater
The free groundwater layer held above the actual groundwater level by an isolating (poorly conductive) layer of soil.
Percolation
The flow of water (or other fluid) through a porous medium under the influence of gravity.
Period
A geological period shorter than an era, typically lasting millions or tens of millions of years.
Permian
The sixth and final period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 300-252 million years ago.
Phanerozoic Eon
The Phanerozoic Eon is the current geological eon in the geologic time scale, and the one during which abundant animal and plant life has existed. It covers roughly 541 million years and includes the present day.
Phosphorite
Sedimentary rock containing abundant phosphate minerals, primarily apatite.
Planation
Erosion process where the land surface in an area becomes completely leveled, typically due to the action of flowing water.
Pleistocene
The older epoch of the Quaternary period, which began approximately 2.6 million years ago and ended 11,700 years ago.
Pliocene
The youngest epoch of the Neogene period, approximately 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago.
Porosity
1) Porosity, the ratio of the volume of void space (pore space) between soil particles and grains to the total volume of the soil mass
2) Porosity in bedrock, the ratio of the volume of voids or fractures between mineral and/or rock particles to the total volume of the bedrock mass                  
Precambrian
Traditionally used, now unofficial, name for the oldest era of Earth’s history (about 4600-541 million years ago)
Precious stone
Gemstone with exceptionally high commercial value
Plastic limit
The water content at which a soil transitions from plastic to semi-solid
Q
Quaternary
The youngest epoch of the Cenozoic era, which began approximately 2.6 million years ago and is ongoing.
R
Raised bog
Elongated, narrow bog area
Ravine
A crevasse formed perpendicular to the glacier edge on the slope beneath the glacier’s margin.
Regional metamorphism
Process of metamorphism that occurs over a broad area simultaneously
Relative age
The age of geological material (e.g., rock or fossil) or formation, based on the cross-cutting relations between rock types and deformation structures.
Replenishment
1) Water volume that can be extracted from a groundwater reservoir based on its annual natural replenishment
2) Water volume with no significant adverse environmental impacts associated with extraction
Residual water
Sedimentary rock or sediment pore water, which originally became trapped in the pores as sediment accumulated.
Ribbed moraine
A transverse and short moraine ridge formed in relation to the movement direction during the deglaciation phase of a glacier
Rise of groundwater level
The rise of the groundwater level from its original position.
S
Sandstone
Clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized particles, with a particle size ranging from 0.062 to 2 mm.
Sediment
A layer formed on the surface of the earth as a result of geological processes such as weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition, consisting of materials like gravel, sand, clay, or peat.
Sedimentary rock
Rock formed from the hardening of sediment.
Sedimentation
Mineral that has formed in the sediment at the site of deposition, either during or after the sedimentation process
Seepage
The slow movement of water (or another fluid) through a porous medium.
Shield
A wide area within a craton where ancient bedrock is exposed
Shrinkage Limit
The water content at which the solid state or consistency of a soil changes from semi-solid to solid.
Silurian
The third period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 444-419 million years ago.
Soil
A layer composed of loose soil types located above the bedrock.
Soil layer
The surface layer of natural soil that has been modified by biological, chemical, and physical factors.
Soil liquefaction
The tendency of water-saturated soil to become a flowing mass
Soil type
A type of soil layer formed as a result of geological processes.
Spring
A location where groundwater naturally flows from rock or soil to the surface of the earth or the bottom of bodies of water.
Stagnation
The cessation of glacier movement.
Strike-slip fault
Horizontal movement of fault
String
Elongated, parallel ridges in a bog, perpendicular to the direction of water flow, often consisting of sphagnum moss
Subduction zone
Subduction zone, where an oceanic plate subducts under another plate (either oceanic or continental
Synclinal groundwater basin
Groundwater area that collects water from its surroundings.
T
Tectonic
Related to the structure and movements of the Earth’s crust
Terrigenous
Originating or derived from land; for example, terrigenous sediments are formed from the weathering of rocks from continental crust.
Till
1) mixed-type soil formed from rock material detached and transported by a continental glacier, which can include particle sizes ranging from clay to boulders;
2) A landform with a characteristic morphological shape
Tillage layer
The surface layer of a field extending down to the depth of plowing.
Time
The shortest time period into which Earth’s history is divided, with lengths ranging from thousands to millions of years
Tor
A rocky area or small residual mountain rising from the surrounding environment on an erosion surface.
Triassic period
The oldest period of the Mesozoic era, approximately 252-201 million years ago, is called the Triassic period
U
Unconformity
The orientation of a bed boundary or tectonic surface relative to adjacent bed series or surface
Utilization
Utilization of mining waste or by-products
V
Valley fill
A plateau composed of sorted material deposited by meltwater released from the glacier into the valleys of the are
Varve
The annual layer formed by a specific type of soil, such as clay deposited during an ice age.
W
Water cycle
The circulation of water (or other fluid) on Earth or another celestial body
Water table
The boundary at which capillary rising groundwater moistens the soil.
Water yield
The amount of water that can be continuously extracted from an aquifer per unit of time (e.g., cubic meters per day)
Watershed
Watershed, the boundary of drainage basins, a ridge from which waters flow in different directions
Wave mark
Wave marks are sedimentary structures formed on the surface of a sedimentary layer by the action of waves.
Weathering
Exogenic processes are geological phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface and are driven by external forces, such as weathering, erosion, and sedimentation.
Weathering
Geological process by which material (e.g., bedrock, soil, concrete) breaks down mechanically or chemically.
Weichselian glaciation
The term used in Northern Europe for the last ice age, which began about 115,000 years ago and ended about 11,500 years ago
Well
Borehole or excavation made into the ground extending below the groundwater table, equipped with appropriate structures and equipment
Wilson cycle
The cycle of opening and closing of oceans, i.e., the rifting and merging of continents
Y
Yoldia Sea
The Baltic Sea’s first post-glacial marine phase, 11,590–10,800 years ago

 








AllABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWY

A

Aapa fen

In Central and Northern Finland, the prevailing open peatland complex, which mainly receives its water from the surrounding mineral soils.

Ablation

Ablation refers to the process of the removal or erosion of material from the surface of a glacier or ice sheet due to melting, sublimation, or calving.

Ablation moraine

Ablation moraine is a type of moraine formed at the margin of a glacier or ice sheet as a result of the deposition of material that has been eroded or ablated from the glacier surface.

Ablation till

Moraine that has loosely accumulated on the Earth’s surface from inside and on top of the ice during the glacier’s melting phase.

Absolute age

Absolute age refers to the exact age of a rock, fossil, or other geological feature.

Accessory mineral

A mineral that occurs in rock in such small amounts that it does not affect the naming of the rock type

Acid drainage

Acidic water containing free sulfuric acid and dissolved contaminants such as metals (e.g., Al, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn), metalloids (As, Sb), and salts (sulfates).

Acid generation potential

The ability of rock material to generate acid as minerals weather.

Acid mine drainage

Mine drainage water, which is acidic and contains free sulfuric acid and dissolved pollutants such as metals (e.g., Al, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn), metalloids (As, Sb), and salts (sulfates)

Acid producing, AP

The ability of rock material to produce acid as minerals weather

Active ice

Ice that is currently in motion or undergoing significant movement within a glacier, ice sheet, ice cap, or other ice-dominated landforms

Algoma-type banded iron formation

Striped iron formation that has occurred near hydrothermal environments

Alkaline rock

Group of igneous rocks in which the amount of alkali metals (e.g., K and Na) is high relative to the amount of aluminum and/or silicon

Alkalinity

The magnitude of the acid-neutralizing effect of water-dissolved, primarily bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions

Allochthon / Allochthonous

Tectonic unit that has formed elsewhere and moved to its current location through tectonic movements, and direct correlation to the source area is not possible

Allogenic mineral

Mineral that has formed elsewhere than the place where it is found

Alunite clay

Fine-grained material containing aluminum potassium sulfate, deposited at the bottom of water bodies

Amphibole

Amphibole is a mineral group composed of silicate minerals containing varying amounts of iron, magnesium, calcium, and other elements. Common types of amphibole minerals include hornblende, actinolite, and tremolite.

Amphibolite

Metamorphic and foliated rock type whose main minerals are hornblende and plagioclase

Analysator

The part located at the top of the polarization microscope that polarizes the light passing through the sample

Anatexis

Partial melting of rock types during metamorphism

Ancient channel

A channel eroded by glacial meltwaters and associated with changes in sea and lake stages after the ice age

Ancient shoreline

Ancient shoreline marker indicating the highest level of the water surface.

Anthropocene

Informal term for the period in Earth’s history when human activities (anthropogenic activities) significantly affect the Earth’s biological, chemical, and physical processes

Anticlinal groundwater zone

Groundwater discharge area

Aperture

The distance between the two walls of an open fracture

Archean eon

Geochronological unit of geological time that existed from about 4000 to 2500 million years ago, preceding the Proterozoic Eon

Artesian

Characteristic of a confined/pressurized aquifer that causes the water level to rise above the ground surface when a hole is drilled through the confining layer

Artesian well

A well that reaches the confined water, from which groundwater flows above the ground surface

Artificial recharge

Artificial infiltration of water into the soil

Assimilation

The mixing of country rock and its partial melt into the magma that has intruded against the country rock in the earth’s crust

Asthenosphere

The mantle zone beneath the Earth’s lithosphere, extending to about 700 kilometers in depth from the surface

Augen gneiss

Gneiss in which particularly potassium feldspar and quartz form oval grains or clusters of grains

Aureole

The halo around an intrusion or mineralization where the composition or structure of the rock has been altered due to heat or circulating solutions

Autigenic mineral

Mineral that has formed in the sediment at the site of deposition, either during or after the sedimentation process

Autochtonous

Part or area of the bedrock that has not moved relative to its base or surroundings due to tectonic activities
B

Baltic ice lake

The Baltic Sea’s late glacial fresh-water lake phase, which ended 11,590 years ago.

Bar / Shoal

Sandbar formed below the water surface or in shallow water.

Beach deposit

Sorted deposit formed from material moved and deposited by shore forces, which has no specific shape

Beach ridge

A ridge parallel to the shoreline, formed from material eroded, sorted, and redeposited by wave action

Becke line

Optical phenomenon occurring at the interface between two minerals, where the mineral grain can be thought of as acting as a kind of lens

Bed

The smallest unit of lithostratigraphic classification.

Bedrock

The uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust composed of various rock types, partially covered by loose soil or water, is called the regolith

Bedrock groundwater

Water in the saturated portions of the bedrock.

Bedrock mapping

Geological mapping aimed at enhancing knowledge of the characteristics and evolution of the bedrock.

Bentonite

Clay containing over 60% clay particles

Bimodal

A series or distribution with two peaks in occurrence frequency

Biogenic mound

A mound on the seabed of biogenic origin

Breccia

Clastic sedimentary rock with angular clasts and a clast size greater than 2 mm

Budini

Structure formed as a result of the interruption (boudinage) of an originally continuous layer or rock unit
C

Cambrian

The oldest period of the Phanerozoic Eon and the Paleozoic Era, approximately 539-485 million years ago.

Capillarity

The upward movement of water in the pores of fine-grained soils.

Capillary water

The water in the unsaturated zone of the soil, influenced by capillary forces.

Carbonic acid

The volatile acid formed by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water

Carboniferous period

The fifth period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 359-300 million years ago

Cataclastic

1) An adjective referring to rock formed as a result of movements and fractures in the bedrock.
2) The term for the structure of rock formed as a result of movements and fractures in the bedrock.

Cenozoic era

Phanerozoic eon’s era that began approximately 66 million years ago and continues to the present day.

Central moraine

The moraine that has accumulated at the junction of glacier tongues during the glacier’s melting phase.

Chemical sediment

Sediment deposited in place from sea or lake water.

Chemostratigraphy

Stratigraphy subset where sediment arrangement and separation rely on variations in chemical composition.

Chronostratigraphy

The part of stratigraphy where geological formations are arranged and distinguished from each other in time is called “chronostratigraphy.”

Clast

A structure characteristic of clastic sediments deposited by flowing water or wind, where part of the wavy structure has been cut away.

Clastic

1) Sediment or sedimentary rock composed of clasts
2) Structure composed of clasts

Coal

A sedimentary rock composed mainly of carbonaceous material formed through carbonization

Color index

A numerical value describing the color of water.

Concordance

1) Parallelism of bedding plane or tectonic surface with adjacent bed set or surface.
2) Parallelism of magmatic intrusion and its contact surface with the layering or foliation of the country rock.

Cone of depression

Conical depression surface of groundwater

Confined aquifer

Pressurized groundwater under a water-retaining layer.

Confining bed

An insulating layer of soil that bounds one or more groundwater layers.

Conglomerate

A clastic sedimentary rock with rounded clasts and a clast size larger than 2 mm.

Consolidation

Soil compaction and consolidation under load.

Contact

The contact surface between two rock types is called “contact boundary” or “contact interface” in English.

Continental plate

A lithospheric plate whose crustal portion is primarily continental.

Convection Current

The slow circulation of mostly solid rock material in the Earth’s mantle

Core

The innermost layer of the Earth

Craton

A vast area of continental crust where significant tectonic movements have not occurred for a long time

Cretaceous Period

The youngest period of the Mesozoic era, approximately 145-66 million years ago.

Crust

The outermost layer of the Earth, with an average thickness of 6-7 km for oceanic crust and 35-40 km for continental crust.

Cryptozoic Eon

The Cryptozoic eon is an outdated term for a geological period that corresponds approximately to what is now referred to as the Precambrian era (informally)

Crystal

Activity related to hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, especially the alteration and replacement of minerals as well as the crystallization in the free spaces of the bedrock
D

De Geer moraine

A terminal moraine ridge formed at the edge of a glacier terminating in water, resulting from the repeated advance or fracturing of the ice

Deformation

Physical changes in rock due to the influence of an external stress field

Deglaciation

Glacier retreat; melting of ice and withdrawal of the glacier’s edge

Degree of hydratation

The portion of cement clinker that has completely reacted with water

Delta

Sedimentary deposit formed at the mouth of a river or glacial river into a lake or sea

Detrital

Remnant or remaining

Devonian

The fourth period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 419-359 million years ago

Diagenesis

The hardening of sediment into sedimentary rock, during which the sediment is compacted (reducing pore space) and the components of the rock become cemented together

Diamict

Mixed-grain-size sediment (the term does not specify the origin of the sediment)

Diatactical clay

Freshwater varved clay; each varve can be distinguished into a light sandy and dark clayey part

Differential stress

Stress state in which different components have different magnitudes

Discharge / Flow rate

Water flow rate measured in units of time (m³/day or L/min)

Discontinuity surface

1) Sedimentology: A point in a sedimentary sequence caused by erosion or cessation of sedimentation.
2) Structural geology: A structure (joint, fault, or vein) that causes a planar mechanical disturbance in its host rock.

Drawdown

The lowering of the groundwater level from its original surface level.

Drawdown curve

Curve of the declining groundwater level in a pumping well as a function of time, distance, and pumping amount

Drumlin

A streamlined ridge formed from basal till by the movement of continental ice, which rises prominently above its surroundings

Dry crust layer

An overlying, load-bearing surface layer of fine-grained soil caused by the drying shrinkage of mineral particles above the groundwater level

Dryas period

A colder period associated with the final stage of the Weichselian glaciation approximately 12,250 – 11,600 years ago
E

Economic geology

Branch of geology that focuses on the exploration and study of raw materials of economic or industrial interest.

Ediacaran period

The youngest period of the Proterozoic eon and the Neoproterozoic era, approximately 635-539 million years ago

Eocene

The second epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 56.0-33.9 million years ago

Eon

Long geological period (hundreds or thousands of millions of years long)

Epiclastic

Sedimentary material formed as a result of weathering and erosion

Epigene

A geological process or feature occurring near or on the Earth’s surface.

Epigenetic

Feature that has formed later than the host material

Epithermal

1) Mineral occurrence formed by low-temperature hydrothermal activity near the Earth’s surface
2) Near-surface low-temperature hydrothermal environment

Epoch

An epoch is a division of the geologic time scale that is smaller than a period and larger than an age.

Era

A geological period shorter than an eon.

Erosion

Surface erosion caused by running water, glaciers, wave action, or wind.

Erratic boulder / Erratic block

Glacial erratic or boulder transported by glacier ice

Eustasy

Eustasy is the scientific term for changes in sea level across the whole planet due to global factors such as melting ice caps or thermal expansion of seawater.

Eustatic

Resulting from the rise or fall of ocean levels.

Evaporite

Sediment or sedimentary rock formed through precipitation from salt or aqueous solution.

Exhalite

Related to gas, vapor, or hydrothermal solutions.

Exogene process

Exogenic processes are geological phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface and are driven by external forces, such as weathering, erosion, and sedimentation.

Exposure

The point on the Earth’s surface where rock is exposed and clearly identifiable as solid bedrock is a rock outcrop.

Extension

Measurement of how much a line or object has elongated due to deformation

Extramarginal

Deposition or other feature formed outside the margin of a glacier (e.g., a channel)
F

Fallout

Material deposited from the air onto the Earth’s surface or into water.

Flandrian

Flandrian is a stage of the Holocene epoch, generally corresponding to the last 11,700 years following the end of the last major ice age.

Fluvial sediment

Sediment transported and deposited by flowing water.

Formation zone

An area outside the main groundwater deposit but connected to it, serving as a formation zone for groundwater or as an area that collects/releases surface water to/from a groundwater basin

Fossil water

Water trapped in the pores of sedimentary rock or sediment, which originally became trapped as the sediment was deposited

Free groundwater

Groundwater that is not confined by an overlying impermeable layer, also known as a confining layer.
G

Geodiversity

1) Geological diversity
2) Variability of the Earth’s crust, soil, surface forms, and associated processes, which influence nature and landscape over a wider area.

Geosphere

The entirety on Earth extending from the soil to the boundary of the Earth’s core, excluding the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere

Geotope

1) A geological feature of interest in geoscience.
2) A distinct part of the Earth’s crust with special geological and morphological significance.

Giant’s cauldron / Pothole

1) A giants’ kettle is a rounded, bowl-shaped cavity carved into bedrock by waterborne sediment transported by the flow of water at the bottom of a glacier.
2) In river rapids, a pothole is formed in bedrock by the erosive action of water.

Glacial sediment

Glacial till or sediment deposited by a glacier or its meltwater

Gloe

The phase of a bay becoming separated from the sea, during which the bay’s connection to the ocean is poor or sometimes completely severed.

Gneiss

A structure-oriented, medium- to coarse-grained metamorphic rockand pressure conditions. It is characterized by its banded appearance, with alternating layers of different mineral compositions and colors.

Granite

Granite is a common intrusive igneous rock composed mainly of alkali feldspar, albite plagioclase, quartz, mica, and sometimes hornblende

Gravitation water

Gravity-driven flow of water in an unsaturated zone

Groundwater

Water that completely fills the pore spaces in soil and bedrock.

Groundwater divide

The boundary between the formation areas of two groundwater reservoirs.

Groundwater occurrence

An aquifer, a subsurface layer of rock or sediment containing water, with defined boundaries and areas where groundwater is formed and discharged.

Groundwater recharge area

An area within a groundwater zone where soil layers are highly permeable, allowing significant infiltration of water to become groundwater.

Groundwater table

The level where atmospheric pressure is one.
H

Hadean eon

The oldest geological age, currently unofficial, geochronological unit approximately 4600-4000 million years ago.

Holocene

The youngest geological epoch, which began approximately 11,700 years ago and continues to the present

Hummocky Moraine

The landform composed of surface or ground moraine, consisting of various ridges

Humus

Organic matter in soil

Hydratation

The chemical reaction occurring when cement is mixed with water, resulting in hydration reaction products and the mixture hardens as it dries

Hydratation product

The substance formed during cement hydration

Hydraulic conductivity

The ability of a soil or rock formation to conduct water

Hydraulic gradient

The slope angle of the groundwater table between two points

Hydrogeological mapping

Hydrogeological maps bring basic geological information together with data on the hydraulic and hydrochemical characteristics of the rocks and their usefulness for groundwater supply

Hydrogeology

The science that studies the interactions between groundwater and its geological environment, focusing on the influence of geological factors on the physical behavior and chemical composition of groundwater

Hydrologic cycle

The water (or other fluid) cycle on Earth or another celestial body

Hydrothermal

A product resulting from hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, or the solution itself

Hydrothermal activity

Activity related to hot groundwater or water contained in magmas, especially the alteration and replacement of minerals as well as the crystallization in the free spaces of the bedrock

Hydrothermal alteration

Alteration of rock-forming minerals (/glass) by the action of a circulating hydrothermal solution in the rock

Hydrothermal mineral deposit

A mineral deposit formed by the action of hydrothermal solutions

Hydrothermal ore deposit

An ore deposit formed by the action of hydrothermal solutions

Hydrothermal water

Subterranean hot water

Hypogene

1) Mineral deposit formed by upward-moving fluids in the Earth’s crust
2) Geological process or feature occurring in or beneath the Earth’s crust
I

Ice age

Geological period when ice masses covered extensive areas of the Earth

Impactite

Meteorite impact-generated rock

Indicator mineral

A mineral indicating a potential mineral deposit

Indicator species

A plant, fungus, or lichen species that can be used as an aid in mapping its substrate (rock or soil) or as an indicator of environmental change

Infiltration

Water infiltration from the Earth’s surface into a porous medium

Infiltration coefficient

The ratio of infiltrated water to precipitation

Interglacial

Interglacial period between two glaciations

Internal load

Nutrient load of a body of water, which originates from the water body itself.

Interstadial

Nutrient load of a body of water, which originates from the water body itself.

Isobase

Contour line of isostatic uplift or subsidence

Isotope age

The age of a mineral or rock calculated based on the ratio of radioactive parent isotopes to their daughter isotopes
J

Jurassic

Middle Mesozoic Era between the Triassic and Cretaceous periods approximately 201-145 million years ago
K

Kame

A landform formed by the deposition of sorted sediment during the Ice Age.

Karstification

The dissolution of minerals in bedrock caused by the movement of natural waters within the bedrock.

Karstwindow

A typically funnel-shaped depression, often formed by the collapse of a karst cave; a location where an aboveground stream/river flows underground.

Kettle hole

A kettle hole is a bowl-shaped depression that forms when a large block of ice, detached from the edge of a glacier and buried in sediment, melts into the ground, leaving a depression.

Kimberlite pipe

An ultra-basic igneous rock with a typically pipe-shaped intrusion

Kinematics

Description of how rock masses or objects within rock move as a result of deformation
L

Lamination

Layering where the thickness of the layers is typically less than 1 cm.

Land uplift

The formation of a lake from the sea as a result of land uplift

Landslide

A landform created by the sudden mass movement of soil or rock

Limestone

Limestone primarily composed of calcite.

Limnetic

Formed at the bottom of fresh water, pertaining to lakes, concerning lakes, lacustrine.

Limonite / Bog ore

Iron oxide deposit at the bottom of a lake or bog, also along the edges of rivers and springs.

Lithology

Description of a rock based on physical characteristics such as composition, grain size, structures, and color.

Lithosphere

The Earth’s outer shell, consisting of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle, with a thickness of about 50–300 km.

Littoral zone

A zone of soil or bedrock partially saturated with water.

Loamy clay

The sediment deposited by the meltwater of a glacier into deep freshwater or low-salinity water

Lysimeter

A container embedded flush with the ground surface and filled with soil matching the surrounding land, used for measuring the water balance of the soil surface layer.
M

Major material cycle

The cycling of chemical substances on Earth or any other celestial body

Mantle

The layer between Earth’s crust and core is called the mantle.

Marine regression

1) The shoreline moving seaward
2) Relative or absolute decline in water level

Marine sediment

Sediment deposited on the ocean floor.

Marine transgression

1. The shoreline moving inland
2. Vedenpinnan suhteellinen tai absoluuttinen nousu – Relative or absolute rise in water level

Meander

A bend, series of bends, or meander occurring in a river flowing through a gently sloping area.

Meander bar

A sedimentary deposit formed in the inner bend of a meandering river.

Meghalayan

The youngest period of the Holocene, which began 4,200 years ago and continues to the present.

Mesoproterozoic era

The second period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 1600–1000 million years ago.

Mesosphere

The mantle zone located beneath the asthenosphere.

Mesozoic era

The second period of the Phanerozoic eon, approximately 252-66 million years ago.

Meteoric water

Water occurring in or originating from the atmosphere

Mud

A sediment composed of plant and animal remains as well as fine mineral particles deposited in water, with a humus content, or the proportion of organic material, exceeding 6%.

Mudstone

Organic sediment formed in water with an organic matter content exceeding 6%.
N

Neogene period

The second period of the Cenozoic era, approximately 23-2.6 million years ago.

Neoproterozoic era

The third, or youngest, period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 1000–541 million years ago.

Northgrippian

A period of the Holocene epoch that began 8,200 years ago and ended 4,200 years ago.
O

Oligotrophic

Nutrient-poor, for example, a nutrient-poor water body.

Ologocene

The third and final epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 33.9 to 23 million years ago.

Outcrop of bedrock

A rock covered by a soil layer less than a meter thick, usually moraine, is described as a geological formation in soil maps

Oxbow / Cutoff

Oxbow lake formed from the abandoned meander of a meandering river

Oxygen concentration

The mass of oxygen in water expressed per unit volume of water.
P

Palaeogene

The oldest period of the Cenozoic era, approximately 66-23 million years ago.

Palaeozoic era

The first period of the Phanerozoic eon, approximately 541-252 million years ago.

Paleocene

The first epoch of the Paleogene period, approximately 66.0 to 56.0 million years ago.

Paleoproterozoic era

The oldest period of the Proterozoic eon, approximately 2500–1600 million years ago.

Peneplain

A land surface that has been lowered and leveled near the base level of erosion (usually sea level) as a result of long-term erosion.

Perched groundwater

The free groundwater layer held above the actual groundwater level by an isolating (poorly conductive) layer of soil.

Percolation

The flow of water (or other fluid) through a porous medium under the influence of gravity.

Period

A geological period shorter than an era, typically lasting millions or tens of millions of years.

Permian

The sixth and final period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 300-252 million years ago.

Phanerozoic Eon

The Phanerozoic Eon is the current geological eon in the geologic time scale, and the one during which abundant animal and plant life has existed. It covers roughly 541 million years and includes the present day.

Phosphorite

Sedimentary rock containing abundant phosphate minerals, primarily apatite.

Planation

Erosion process where the land surface in an area becomes completely leveled, typically due to the action of flowing water.

Pleistocene

The older epoch of the Quaternary period, which began approximately 2.6 million years ago and ended 11,700 years ago.

Pliocene

The youngest epoch of the Neogene period, approximately 5.3 to 2.6 million years ago.

Porosity

1) Porosity, the ratio of the volume of void space (pore space) between soil particles and grains to the total volume of the soil mass
2) Porosity in bedrock, the ratio of the volume of voids or fractures between mineral and/or rock particles to the total volume of the bedrock mass                  

Precambrian

Traditionally used, now unofficial, name for the oldest era of Earth’s history (about 4600-541 million years ago)

Precious stone

Gemstone with exceptionally high commercial value

Plastic limit

The water content at which a soil transitions from plastic to semi-solid
Q

Quaternary

The youngest epoch of the Cenozoic era, which began approximately 2.6 million years ago and is ongoing.
R

Raised bog

Elongated, narrow bog area

Ravine

A crevasse formed perpendicular to the glacier edge on the slope beneath the glacier’s margin.

Regional metamorphism

Process of metamorphism that occurs over a broad area simultaneously

Relative age

The age of geological material (e.g., rock or fossil) or formation, based on the cross-cutting relations between rock types and deformation structures.

Replenishment

1) Water volume that can be extracted from a groundwater reservoir based on its annual natural replenishment
2) Water volume with no significant adverse environmental impacts associated with extraction

Residual water

Sedimentary rock or sediment pore water, which originally became trapped in the pores as sediment accumulated.

Ribbed moraine

A transverse and short moraine ridge formed in relation to the movement direction during the deglaciation phase of a glacier

Rise of groundwater level

The rise of the groundwater level from its original position.
S

Sandstone

Clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized particles, with a particle size ranging from 0.062 to 2 mm.

Sediment

A layer formed on the surface of the earth as a result of geological processes such as weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition, consisting of materials like gravel, sand, clay, or peat.

Sedimentary rock

Rock formed from the hardening of sediment.

Sedimentation

Mineral that has formed in the sediment at the site of deposition, either during or after the sedimentation process

Seepage

The slow movement of water (or another fluid) through a porous medium.

Shield

A wide area within a craton where ancient bedrock is exposed

Shrinkage Limit

The water content at which the solid state or consistency of a soil changes from semi-solid to solid.

Silurian

The third period of the Paleozoic era, approximately 444-419 million years ago.

Soil

A layer composed of loose soil types located above the bedrock.

Soil layer

The surface layer of natural soil that has been modified by biological, chemical, and physical factors.

Soil liquefaction

The tendency of water-saturated soil to become a flowing mass

Soil type

A type of soil layer formed as a result of geological processes.

Spring

A location where groundwater naturally flows from rock or soil to the surface of the earth or the bottom of bodies of water.

Stagnation

The cessation of glacier movement.

Strike-slip fault

Horizontal movement of fault

String

Elongated, parallel ridges in a bog, perpendicular to the direction of water flow, often consisting of sphagnum moss

Subduction zone

Subduction zone, where an oceanic plate subducts under another plate (either oceanic or continental

Synclinal groundwater basin

Groundwater area that collects water from its surroundings.
T

Tectonic

Related to the structure and movements of the Earth’s crust

Terrigenous

Originating or derived from land; for example, terrigenous sediments are formed from the weathering of rocks from continental crust.

Till

1) mixed-type soil formed from rock material detached and transported by a continental glacier, which can include particle sizes ranging from clay to boulders;
2) A landform with a characteristic morphological shape

Tillage layer

The surface layer of a field extending down to the depth of plowing.

Time

The shortest time period into which Earth’s history is divided, with lengths ranging from thousands to millions of years

Tor

A rocky area or small residual mountain rising from the surrounding environment on an erosion surface.

Triassic period

The oldest period of the Mesozoic era, approximately 252-201 million years ago, is called the Triassic period
U

Unconformity

The orientation of a bed boundary or tectonic surface relative to adjacent bed series or surface

Utilization

Utilization of mining waste or by-products
V

Valley fill

A plateau composed of sorted material deposited by meltwater released from the glacier into the valleys of the are

Varve

The annual layer formed by a specific type of soil, such as clay deposited during an ice age.
W

Water cycle

The circulation of water (or other fluid) on Earth or another celestial body

Water table

The boundary at which capillary rising groundwater moistens the soil.

Water yield

The amount of water that can be continuously extracted from an aquifer per unit of time (e.g., cubic meters per day)

Watershed

Watershed, the boundary of drainage basins, a ridge from which waters flow in different directions

Wave mark

Wave marks are sedimentary structures formed on the surface of a sedimentary layer by the action of waves.

Weathering

Exogenic processes are geological phenomena that occur on the Earth’s surface and are driven by external forces, such as weathering, erosion, and sedimentation.

Weathering

Geological process by which material (e.g., bedrock, soil, concrete) breaks down mechanically or chemically.

Weichselian glaciation

The term used in Northern Europe for the last ice age, which began about 115,000 years ago and ended about 11,500 years ago

Well

Borehole or excavation made into the ground extending below the groundwater table, equipped with appropriate structures and equipment

Wilson cycle

The cycle of opening and closing of oceans, i.e., the rifting and merging of continents
Y

Yoldia Sea

The Baltic Sea’s first post-glacial marine phase, 11,590–10,800 years ago