Internal geological processes shape the Earth’s surface through plate tectonics, earthquakes, and volcanic activity. Tectonic plates are in constant motion, they never stop. From a human perspective, the plates move slowly, about 1–10 cm per year. Over time, however, they significantly alter the Earth’s surface.

A good example is the formation of the Himalayan mountain range (orogeny), which began with the collision of the Eurasian and Indian plates. The mountain range did not form overnight, it began forming approximately 55 million years ago. The collision is still ongoing, causing the range to rise by about 5 mm per year. The region also frequently experiences earthquakes, which occur when stress caused by the movement of the plates is released as the bedrock fractures. (Dalrymple, 2001; Gradstein et al., 2020)